Revisión comparativa de la brecha de ingresos entre el sector público y privado en Ecuador desde las políticas de equiparación

  1. Byron Quito 1
  2. Michelle López-Sánchez 1
  3. Pablo Ponce 1
  4. José Álvarez-García 2
  5. María de la Cruz del Río-Rama 3
  1. 1 Universidad Nacional de Loja, Ecuador
  2. 2 Universidad de Extremadura, España
  3. 3 María de la Cruz del Río-Rama
Revista:
Contaduría y administración

ISSN: 0186-1042 2448-8410

Ano de publicación: 2021

Volume: 66

Número: 4

Tipo: Artigo

Outras publicacións en: Contaduría y administración

Resumo

The aim of this research is to study the wage gap between public and private sector employees in Ecuador. The methodology used is the Oaxaca and Blinder method (decomposition method). The necessary microdata is obtained from the National Survey of Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment (ENEMDU) of the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INEC) for the years 2008, 2013 and 2018. The results obtained suggest the existence of a gap between public and private sectors, where public sector wages are relatively higher than those of the private sector. In addition, schooling and experience influence income levels positively, with the latter being the most determining factor. The decomposition of income gaps by sector shows that the wage gap responds to differences in human capital endowments and to discriminatory components of the labour force. The policy implications are aimed at reducing the public-private income gap.

Referencias bibliográficas

  • Afonso, A., y Gomes, P. (2014). Interactions between private and public sector wages. Journal of Macroeconomics, 39(PA), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmacro.2013.12.003
  • Antón, J.I., y de Bustillo, R.M. (2015). Public-private sector wage differentials in Spain. An updated picture in the midst of the Great Recession. Investigacion Economica, 74(292), 115–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inveco.2015.08.005
  • Antwi, J., y Phillips, D.C. (2013). Wages and health worker retention : Evidence from public sector wage reforms in Ghana. Journal of Development Economics, 102, 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2012.10.004
  • Aslam, M., y Kingdon, G. (2009). Public-private sector segmentation in the Pakistani labour market. Journal of Asian Economics, 20(1), 34–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2008.06.001
  • Auricchio, M., Ciani, E., Dalmazzo, A., y Blasio, G. De. (2020). Redistributive public employment ? A test for the South of Italy. Economics Letters, 186, 108787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2019.108787
  • Bargain, O., y Melly, B. (2008). Public Sector Pay Gap in France: New Evidence Using Panel Data. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp3427 (Consultado: 04/01/2020)
  • Basu, B. (2018). The role of behavioral choices in reducing wage inequality in developing countries. Economic Modelling, 75(November 2017), 355–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2018.07.006
  • Becker, G. (1964). Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education (First). National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
  • Bender, K.A. (2003). Examining Equality between Publicand Private-Sector Wage Distributions. Economic Inquiry, 41(1), 62–79. https://doi.org/10.1093/ei/41.1.62
  • Bermperoglou, D., Pappa, E., y Vella, E. (2017). The government wage bill and private activity. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 79, 21–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jedc.2017.03.006
  • Blackaby, D., Clark, K., Drinkwater, S., Leslie, D., Murphy, P., y O’Leary, N. (1999). Earnings and employment opportunities of disabled people. Department of Education and Employment, (133), 117.
  • Blinder, A.S. (1973). Wage Discrimination: Reduced Form and Structural Estimates. The Journal of Human Resources, 8(4), 436. https://doi.org/10.2307/144855
  • Burdett, K. (2012). Towards a theory of the labor market with a public sector. Labour Economics, 19(1), 68–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2011.07.006
  • Buyse, T., Heylen, F., y Schoonackers, R. (2019). On the impact of public policies and wage formation on business investment in research and development , Economic Modelling, (September). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. econmod.2019.09.022
  • Cai, L., y Liu, A. (2011). Public–Private Sector Wage Gap in Australia: Variation along the Distribution. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 49(2), 362–390. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:bla:brjirl:v:49:y:2011:i:2:p:362-390 (Consultado: 04/01/2020)
  • Callaway, B., y Collins, W.J. (2017). Unions , workers , and wages at the peak of the American labor movement. Explorations in Economic History, 000(August), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2017.08.003
  • Carrillo, P. (2004). Las diferencias salariales entre el sector público y privado en el Ecuador. Cuestiones Económicas, 20(2:3), 165–174.
  • Castagnetti, C., y Giorgetti, M.L. (2019). Understanding the gender wage-gap differential between the public and private sectors in Italy: A quantile approach. Economic Modelling, 78, 240–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2018.09.025
  • Castro Campos, B., Ren, Y., y Petrick, M. (2016). The impact of education on income inequality between ethnic minorities and Han in China. China Economic Review, 41(C), 253–267. Disponible en: https://econpapers. repec.org/RePEc:eee:chieco:v:41:y:2016:i:c:p:253-267 (Consultado: 05/02/2020)
  • Chaudhuri, S., Ghosh, A., y Banerjee, D. (2018). Can public subsidy on education necessarily improve wage inequality? International Review of Economics and Finance, 54(June 2017), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. iref.2017.08.005
  • Chen, Y., y Liu, Q. (2018). Public-sector wages and corruption: An empirical study. European Journal of Political Economy, 54, 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.06.006
  • Christofides, L.N., y Michael, M. (2013). Exploring the public-private sector wage gap in European countries. IZA Journal of European Labor Studies, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-9012-2-15
  • Christofides, L.N., y Pashardes, P. (2002). Self/paid-employment, public/private sector selection, and wage differentials. Labour Economics, 9(6), 737–762. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-5371(02)00103-3
  • Danzer, N. (2019). Job satisfaction and self-selection into the public or private sector: Evidence from a natural experiment. Labour Economics, 57, 46–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2019.01.002
  • Démurger, S., Li, S., y Yang, J. (2012). Earnings differentials between the public and private sectors in China: Exploring changes for urban local residents in the 2000s. China Economic Review, 23(1), 138–153. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.chieco.2011.08.007
  • Depalo, D., y Giordano, R. (2011). The public-private pay gap: a robust quantile approach. Disponible en: https:// ideas.repec.org/p/bdi/wptemi/td_824_11.html (Consultado: 10/02/2020)
  • Dickson, M., Postel-Vinay, F., y Turon, H. (2014). The lifetime earnings premium in the public sector: The view from Europe. Labour Economics, 31, 141–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2014.07.015
  • Disney, R., y Gosling, A. (2003). “A New Method for Estimating Public Sector Pay Premia: Evidence from Britain in the 1990’s”. CEPR Discussion Papers, (C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.), 3787.
  • do Monte, P.A. (2017). Public versus private sector: Do workers’ behave differently? EconomiA, 18(2), 229–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econ.2017.01.001
  • Doménech, R., García, J.R., y Ulloa, C. (2018). The effects of wage flexibility on activity and employment in Spain. Journal of Policy Modeling, 40(6), 1200–1220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2018.08.002
  • Dustmann, C., y Van Soest, A. (1998). Public and private sector wages of male workers in Germany. European Economic Review, 42(8), 1417–1441. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:eee:eecrev:v:42:y:1998:i:8:p:1417-1441 (Consultado: 11/01/2020)
  • Eitan, A., Herman, L., Fischhendler, I., y Rosen, G. (2019). Community–private sector partnerships in renewable energy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 105, 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.12.058
  • Elliott, R. F., Ma, A.H., Scott, A., Bell, D., & Roberts, E. (2007). Geographically differentiated pay in the labour market for nurses. Journal of Health Economics, 26(1), 190-212.
  • Enikolopov, R. (2014). Politicians, bureaucrats and targeted redistribution. Journal of Public Economics, 120, 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.08.004
  • Faggio, G., y Overman, H. (2014). The effect of public sector employment on local labour markets. Journal of Urban Economics, 79(December 2011), 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2013.05.002
  • Fontaine, I., Galvez-iniesta, I., Gomes, P., y Vila-martin, D. (2019). Labour market flows: Accounting for the public sector. Labour Economics, 101770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2019.101770
  • Garcia-perez, J.I., y Jimeno, J.F. (2007). PUBLIC SECTOR WAGE GAPS IN SPANISH REGIONS. Manchester School, 75(4), 501–531. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:bla:manchs:v:75:y:2007:i:4 :p:501-531 (Consultado: 04/01/2020)
  • Gindling, T.H., Hasnain, Z., Newhouse, D., y Shi, R. (2019). Are public sector workers in developing countries overpaid? Evidence from a new global dataset. World Development, 126(February). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. worlddev.2019.104737
  • Giordano, R., Depalo, D., Coutinho Pereira, M., Eugène, B., Papapetrou, E., Pérez, J., … Roter, M. (2011). The public sector pay gap in a selection of Euro area countries. ECB Working Paper, (1406).
  • Hartog, J., y Oosterbeek, H. (1993). Public and private sector wages in the Netherlands. European Economic Review, 37(1), 97–114. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:eee:eecrev:v:37:y:1993:i:1:p:97-114 (Consultado: 15/01/2020)
  • Heitmueller, A. (2006). Public-private sector pay differentials in a devolved Scotland. Journal of Applied Economics, 9, 295–323. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:cem:jaecon:v:9:y:2006:n:2:p:295-323 (Consultado: 15/01/2020)
  • Hospido, L., y Moral-Benito, E. (2016). The public sector wage premium in Spain: Evidence from longitudinal administrative data. Labour Economics, 42(C), 101–122.
  • Ingusci, E., Callea, A., Chirumbolo, A., y Urbini, F. (2016). Job crafting and job satisfaction in a sample of italian teachers: The mediating role of perceived organizational support. Electronic Journal of Applied Statistical Analysis, 9(4), 675–687. https://doi.org/10.1285/i20705948v9n4p675
  • Ingusci, E., Manuti, A., y Callea, A. (2016). Employability as mediator in the relationship between the meaning of working and job search behaviours during unemployment. Electronic Journal of Applied Statistical Analysis, 9(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1285/i20705948v9n1p1
  • Ingusci, E., Palma, F., Giuseppe, M. C. De, y Iacca, C. (2016). Social and scholar integration and students satisfaction: The mediating role of career adaptability. Electronic Journal of Applied Statistical Analysis, 9(4), 704–715. https://doi.org/10.1285/i20705948v9n4p704
  • Jaimovich, E., y Rud, J.P. (2014). Excessive public employment and rent-seeking traps. Journal of Development Economics, 106, 144–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2013.09.007
  • Jia, H. (2017). An evaluation of pension differentials between Chinese private and public sectors from perspective of protection and incentives over the lifecycle. China Economic Review, 44, 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chieco.2017.03.002
  • Jofre-Monseny, J., Silva, J.I., y Vázquez-Grenno, J. (2018). Local labor market effects of public employment. Regional Science and Urban Economics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2018.11.001
  • Katz, L.F., y Krueger, A.B. (1991). Changes in the structure of wages in the public and private sectors. Industrial Relations, (3667).
  • Lausev, J. (2014). What has 20 years of public-private pay gap literature told us? Eastern European transitioning vs. developed economies. Journal of Economic Surveys, 28(3), 516–550. https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12039
  • Leping, K.O., y Toomet, O. (2008). Emerging ethnic wage gap: Estonia during political and economic transition. Journal of Comparative Economics, 36(4), 599–619.
  • Lovely, M.E., Liang, Y., y Zhang, H. (2019). Economic geography and inequality in China: Did improved market access widen spatial wage differences? China Economic Review, 54(2018), 306–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chieco.2019.01.005
  • Lucadamo, A., Mancini, P., y Nifo, A. (2019). Household’s Consumer Behaviour: Economic Recession and Quality of Institution. The case of Italy. Electronic Journal of Applied Statistical Analysis, 12(1), 277–302. https://doi. org/10.1285/i20705948v12n1p277
  • Lucifora, C., y Meurs, D. (2006). The public sector pay gap in France, Great Britain and Ttaly. Review of Income and Wealth, 52(1), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.2006.00175.x
  • Maczulskij, T. (2013). Public-private sector wage differentials and the business cycle. Economic Systems, 37(2), 284–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecosys.2012.10.002
  • Mahuteau, S., Mavromaras, K., Richardson, S., y Zhu, R. (2017). Public-Private Sector Wage Differentials in Australia. Economic Record, 93, 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-4932.12334
  • Mata, J., y Machado, J.A. (2005). Counterfactual decomposition of changes in wage distributions using quantile regression. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 20(4), 445–465. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/ RePEc:jae:japmet:v:20:y:2005:i:4:p:445-465 (Consultado: 21/02/2020)
  • Mayneris, F., Poncet, S., y Zhang, T. (2018). Improving or disappearing: Firm-level adjustments to minimum wages in China. Journal of Development Economics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.06.010
  • Melly, B. (2005). Decomposition of differences in distribution using quantile regression. Labour Economics, 12(4), 577–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2005.05.006
  • Michael, M., y Christofides, L.N. (2020). The impact of austerity measures on the public private sector wage gap in Europe. Labour Economics, 63, 101796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101796
  • Mincer, J. (1974). “Schooling, Experience and Earnings” National Bureau of Economic Research. Columbia University Press.
  • Mizala, A., Romaguera, P., y Gallegos, S. (2011). Public-private wage gap in Latin America (1992-2007): A matching approach. Labour Economics, 18(SUPPL. 1), S115–S131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2011.08.004
  • Morikawa, M. (2016). A comparison of the wage structure between the public and private sectors in Japan. Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, 39, 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjie.2016.01.004
  • Mueller, R.E. (1998). Public–private sector wage differentials in Canada: evidence from quantile regressions. Economics Letters, 60(2), 229–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1765(98)00110-4
  • Nikolic, J. (2014). The effect of large-scale privatization on public sector pay gap in a transition economy. Economics of Transition, 22(4), 759–781. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecot.12052
  • Nikolic, J., Rubil, I., y Tomić, I. (2017). Pre-crisis reforms, austerity measures and the public-private wage gap in two emerging economies. Economic Systems, 41(2), 248–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecosys.2016.06.001
  • Nordman, C., Robilliard, A.S., y Roubaud, F. (2011). Gender and ethnic earnings gaps in seven West African cities. Labour Economics, 18(S1), S132–S145. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:eee:labeco:v:18:y :2011:i:s1:p:s132-s145 (Consultado: 15/01/2020)
  • O’Gorman, M. (2010). Educational disparity and the persistence of the black-white wage gap in the U.S. Economics of Education Review, 29(4), 526–542. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:eee:ecoedu:v:29:y:2010:i:4:p:526-542 (Consultado: 15/01/2020)
  • Oaxaca, R. (1973). Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets. International Economic Review, 14(3), 693. https://doi.org/10.2307/2525981
  • Oaxaca, R.L., y Ransom, M.R. (1994). On discrimination and the decomposition of wage differentials. Journal of Econometrics, 61(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(94)90074-4
  • Panizza, U. (2001). Public Sector Wages and Bureaucratic Quality: Evidence from Latin America. Economía, 2(1), 97–139. https://doi.org/10.1353/eco.2001.0015
  • Panizza, U., y Qiang, C.Z.W. (2005). Public-private wage differential and gender gap in Latin America: Spoiled bureaucrats and exploited women? Journal of Socio-Economics, 34(6), 810–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. socec.2005.07.022
  • Papapetrou, E. (2006). The Public-Private Sector Pay Differential in Greece. Public Finance Review, 34(4), 450– 473. https://doi.org/10.1177/1091142106288998
  • Pederson, P.J., Schmidt-Sørensen, J.B., Smith, N., & Westergård-Nielsen, N. (1990). Wage differentials between the public and private sectors. Journal of Public Economics, 41(1), 125-145.
  • Poterba, J., y Rueben, K. (1994). The Distribution of Public Sector Wage Premia: New Evidence Using Quantile Regression Methods. Cambridge, MA. https://doi.org/10.3386/w4734
  • Rathelot, R. (2014). Ethnic differentials on the labor market in the presence of asymmetric spatial sorting: Set identification and estimation. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 48, 154–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. regsciurbeco.2014.06.007
  • Rattso, J., y Stokke, H.E. (2019). Identification of the private-public wage gap. Labour Economics. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.labeco.2019.04.006
  • Reder, M. (1975). The Theory of Employment and Wages in the Public Sector. En Labor in the Public and Nonprofit Sectors (pp. 1–48). Princeton University Press. Disponible en: http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt13x0wq0.4 (Consultado: 22/01/2020)
  • Rees, H., y Shuh, A. (1995). Public-private sector wage differential in the U.K. The Manchester School, 63(1), 52–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9957.1995.tb00268.x
  • Robinson, J. A., Torvik, R., y Verdier, T. (2017). The political economy of public income volatility: With an application to the resource curse. Journal of Public Economics, 145, 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2016.11.014
  • Saari, M.Y., Rahman, M.A.A., Hassan, A., y Habibullah, M.S. (2016). Estimating the impact of minimum wages on poverty across ethnic groups in Malaysia. Economic Modelling, 54, 490–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. econmod.2016.01.028
  • Sanhueza, G.D. (2017). El Estado como empleador. Características del empleo público en Chile (Estudio Exploratorio). Facultad Latin oamericana de Cien cias Sociales., (December), 141–172.
  • Schultz, T.W. (1961). Investment in Human Capital. The American Economic Review, 51(1), 1–17.
  • Shahen, M., Kotani, K., y Kakinaka, M. (2019). Wage and labor mobility between public, formal private and informal private sectors in Egypt. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:kch:wpaper:sdes-2019-4 (Consultado: 19/02/2020)
  • Shahen, M., Kotani, K., y Saijo, T. (2020). How do individuals behave in the intergenerational sustainability dilemma? A strategy method experiment. Disponible en: https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:kch:wpaper:sdes-2020-1 (Consultado: 04/01/2020)
  • Singleton, C. (2019). The public–private sector wage differential in the UK: Evidence from longitudinal employer– employee data. Economics Letters, 174, 109–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2018.11.005
  • Smith, S.P. (1976). Government wage differentials by sex. Journal of Human Resources, 185-199. Smith, S.P. (1977). Government wage differentials. Journal of Urban Economics, 4(3), 248-271.
  • Tansel, A., Dalgıç, B., y Güven, A. (2019). Wage Inequality and Wage Mobility in Turkey. Social Indicators Research, 142(1), 107–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-1908-1
  • Tansel, A., Keskin, H.I., y Ozdemir, Z.A. (2020). Is there an informal employment wage penalty in Egypt? Evidence from quantile regression on panel data. Empirical Economics, 58(6), 2949–2979. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00181-019-01651-2
  • Telegdy, Á. (2018). Public wage spillovers: The role of individual characteristics and employer wage policies. Labour Economics, 55, 116–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2018.08.008
  • Valasek, J. (2018). Dynamic reform of public institutions : A model of motivated agents and collective reputation. Journal of Public Economics, 168, 94–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.10.005
  • Van Ophem, H. (1993). A Modified Switching Regression Model for Earnings Differentials Between the Public and Private Sectors in the Netherlands. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 75(2), 215. https://doi. org/10.2307/2109426
  • Vick, B., y Fontanella, G. (2017). Gender, race yamp; the veteran wage gap. Social Science Research, 61, 11–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.07.005
  • Vilerts, K. (2018). The public–private sector wage gap in Latvia. Baltic Journal of Economics, 18(1), 25–50. https:// doi.org/10.108